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What Were The Domonant Animals During The Triassic Epoch

Written By Wednesday 15 June 2022 Add Comment Edit

Get-go period of the Mesozoic Era 252–201 meg years ago

Triassic
251.902 ± 0.024 – 201.36 ± 0.17 Ma

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Chronology
Etymology
Name formality Formal
Usage information
Celestial trunk Earth
Regional usage Global (ICS)
Time scale(s) used ICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unit Period
Stratigraphic unit System
Time span formality Formal
Lower purlieus definition First advent of the conodont Hindeodus parvus
Lower boundary GSSP Meishan, Zhejiang, Mainland china
31°04′47″N 119°42′21″E  /  31.0798°North 119.7058°E  / 31.0798; 119.7058
GSSP ratified 2001[six]
Upper boundary definition First appearance of the ammonite Psiloceras spelae tirolicum
Upper purlieus GSSP Kuhjoch section, Karwendel mountains, Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria
47°29′02″N eleven°31′50″E  /  47.4839°Northward 11.5306°E  / 47.4839; 11.5306
GSSP ratified 2010[vii]

The Triassic ( try-Ass-ik)[8] is a geologic period and organization which spans 50.six million years from the end of the Permian Menstruum 251.902 million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Jurassic Menstruum 201.36 Mya.[nine] The Triassic is the starting time and shortest catamenia of the Mesozoic Era. Both the showtime and end of the period are marked by major extinction events.[ten] The Triassic Period is subdivided into three epochs: Early Triassic, Middle Triassic and Late Triassic.

The Triassic began in the wake of the Permian–Triassic extinction issue, which left the Earth's biosphere impoverished; information technology was well into the middle of the Triassic before life recovered its former diversity. 3 categories of organisms can be distinguished in the Triassic tape: survivors from the Permian–Triassic extinction issue, new groups which flourished briefly, and other new groups which went on to boss the Mesozoic Era. Reptiles, particularly archosaurs, were the primary terrestrial vertebrates during this fourth dimension. A specialized subgroup of archosaurs, called dinosaurs, first appeared in the Belatedly Triassic but did not become dominant until the succeeding Jurassic Flow.[11] Archosaurs that became dominant in this period were primarily pseudosuchians, ancestors of modern crocodilians, while some archosaurs specialized in flight, the offset time among vertebrates, becoming the pterosaurs.

Therapsids, the dominant vertebrates of the preceding Permian menstruation, declined throughout the period. The starting time true mammals, themselves a specialized subgroup of therapsids, as well evolved during this period. The vast supercontinent of Pangaea existed until the mid-Triassic, after which information technology began to gradually rift into ii carve up landmasses, Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south.

The global climate during the Triassic was by and large hot and dry,[12] with deserts spanning much of Pangaea's interior. However, the climate shifted and became more than humid as Pangaea began to drift apart. The terminate of the menstruation was marked by yet some other major mass extinction, the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, that wiped out many groups, including about pseudosuchians, and allowed dinosaurs to presume authorization in the Jurassic.

Etymology [edit]

The Triassic was named in 1834 past Friedrich von Alberti, later on a succession of iii distinct rock layers (Greek triás significant 'triad') that are widespread in southern Germany: the lower Buntsandstein (colourful sandstone), the centre Muschelkalk (shell-begetting limestone) and the upper Keuper (coloured clay).[13]

Dating and subdivisions [edit]

On the geologic time scale, the Triassic is usually divided into Early, Heart, and Tardily Triassic Epochs, and the corresponding rocks are referred to equally Lower, Centre, or Upper Triassic. The faunal stages from the youngest to oldest are:

Series/Epoch Faunal stage Fourth dimension bridge
Upper/Belatedly Triassic (Tr3) Rhaetian (208.5 – 201.3 ± 0.2 Mya)
Norian (227 – 208.5 Mya)
Carnian (237 – 227 Mya)
Middle Triassic (Tr2) Ladinian (242 – 237 Mya)
Anisian (247.2 – 242 Mya)
Lower/Early on Triassic (Scythian) Olenekian (251.2 – 247.ii Mya)
Induan (251.902 ± 0.024 – 251.two Mya)

Paleogeography [edit]

View of the Tethys area during the Ladinian stage

230 Ma continental reconstruction

During the Triassic, near all the Earth's land mass was full-bodied into a single supercontinent, Pangaea (lit. 'unabridged land'). This supercontinent was more-or-less centered on the equator and extended between the poles, though information technology did migrate northwards every bit the period progressed. Southern Pangea, also known as Gondwana, was made up by closely-appressed cratons corresponding to mod South America, Africa, Republic of madagascar, Republic of india, Antarctica, and Australia. N Pangea, too known as Laurussia or Laurasia, corresponds to modern-day North America and the fragmented predecessors of Eurasia.

The western edge of Pangea lies at the margin of an enormous bounding main, Panthalassa (lit. 'entire body of water'), which roughly corresponds to the mod Pacific Ocean. Practically all deep-bounding main crust nowadays during the Triassic has been recycled through the subduction of oceanic plates, so very little is known about the open up sea from this time period. Well-nigh information on Panthalassan geology and marine life is derived from island arcs and rare seafloor sediments accreted onto surrounding land masses, such equally present-day Japan and western North America.

The eastern edge of Pangea was encroached by a pair of all-encompassing oceanic basins: The Neo-Tethys (or merely Tethys) and Paleo-Tethys Oceans. These extended from China to Iberia, hosting abundant marine life along their shallow tropical peripheries. They were divided from each other by a long cord of microcontinents known equally the Cimmerian terranes. Cimmerian crust had discrete from Gondwana in the early Permian and drifted northwards during the Triassic, enlarging the Neo-Tethys Sea which formed in their wake. At the aforementioned time, they forced Paleo-Tethys Bounding main to shrink as information technology was beingness subducted under Asia. By the end of the Triassic, the Paleo-Tethys Body of water occupied a small surface area and the Cimmerian terranes began to collide with southern asia. This collision, known equally the Cimmerian Orogeny, connected into the Jurassic and Cretaceous to produce a chain of mountain ranges stretching from Turkey to Malaysia.[14]

Pangaea was fractured by widespread faulting and rift basins during the Triassic—specially belatedly in that menses—but had not however separated. The first nonmarine sediments in the rift that marks the initial break-up of Pangaea, which separated eastern North America from Morocco, are of Late Triassic age; in the U.S., these thick sediments contain the Newark Supergroup.[16] Rift basins are besides common in South America, Europe, and Africa. Terrestrial environments are particularly well-represented in the South Africa,[17] Russia, central Europe, and the southwest The states. Terrestrial Triassic biostratigraphy is by and large based on terrestrial and freshwater tetrapods, too as conchostracans ("mollusk shrimps"), a blazon of fast-breeding crustacean which lived in lakes and hypersaline environments.

Because a supercontinent has less shoreline compared to a series of smaller continents, Triassic marine deposits are relatively uncommon on a global scale. A major exception is in Western Europe, where the Triassic was first studied. The northeastern margin of Gondwana was a stable passive margin along the Neo-Tethys Ocean, and marine sediments have been preserved in parts of northern India and Arabia.[14] In North America, marine deposits are limited to a few exposures in the west.

Scandinavia [edit]

During the Triassic peneplains are thought to have formed in what is now Kingdom of norway and southern Sweden.[18] [nineteen] [20] Remnants of this peneplain tin can be traced as a tilted top accordance in the Swedish W Coast.[eighteen] In northern Kingdom of norway Triassic peneplains may have been buried in sediments to exist and then re-exposed equally coastal plains chosen strandflats.[19] Dating of illite clay from a strandflat of Bømlo, southern Kingdom of norway, have shown that landscape there became weathered in Late Triassic times (c. 210 one thousand thousand years ago) with the landscape likely too beingness shaped during that time.[21]

Paleooceanography [edit]

Eustatic sea level in the Triassic was consistently low compared to the other geological periods. The beginning of the Triassic was around present body of water level, rise to near x–20 metres (33–66 ft) above nowadays-day sea level during the Early on and Center Triassic. Body of water level rising accelerated in the Ladinian, culminating with a body of water level up to l metres (164 ft) above nowadays-day levels during the Carnian. Sea level began to decline in the Norian, reaching a depression of 50 metres (164 ft) below present bounding main level during the mid-Rhaetian. Low global sea levels persisted into the earliest Jurassic. The long-term sea level trend is superimposed by 22 sea level drop events widespread in the geologic tape, mostly of modest (less than 25-metre (82 ft)) and medium (25–75-metre (82–246 ft)) magnitudes. A lack of testify for Triassic continental ice sheets suggest that glacial eustasy is unlikely to be the cause of these changes.[22]

Climate [edit]

The Triassic continental interior climate was generally hot and dry out, so that typical deposits are red bed sandstones and evaporites. At that place is no evidence of glaciation at or near either pole; in fact, the polar regions were patently moist and temperate, providing a climate suitable for forests and vertebrates, including reptiles. Pangaea'southward large size limited the moderating effect of the global ocean; its continental climate was highly seasonal, with very hot summers and common cold winters.[23] The stiff contrast between the Pangea supercontinent and the global ocean triggered intense cantankerous-equatorial monsoons.[23]

The Triassic may have mostly been a dry flow, but evidence exists that it was punctuated by several episodes of increased rainfall in tropical and subtropical latitudes of the Tethys Body of water and its surrounding land.[24] Sediments and fossils suggestive of a more than humid climate are known from the Anisian to Ladinian of the Tethysian domain, and from the Carnian and Rhaetian of a larger area that includes also the Boreal domain (e.g., Svalbard Islands), the Northward American continent, the South China block and Argentine republic.

The best studied of such episodes of humid climate, and probably the most intense and widespread, was the Carnian Pluvial Issue. A 2020 study found bubbles of carbon dioxide in basaltic rocks dating back to the terminate of the Triassic, and concluded that volcanic action helped trigger climate change in that menstruum.[25]

Flora [edit]

State plants [edit]

On country, the surviving vascular plants included the lycophytes, the dominant cycadophytes, ginkgophyta (represented in modern times by Ginkgo biloba), ferns, horsetails and glossopterids. The spermatophytes, or seed plants, came to dominate the terrestrial flora: in the northern hemisphere, conifers, ferns and bennettitales flourished. The seed fern genus Dicroidium would dominate Gondwana throughout the period.

Phytoplankton [edit]

Before the Permian extinction, Archaeplastida (red and greenish algae) had been the major marine phytoplanktons since about 659–645 million years agone,[26] when they replaced marine planktonic cyanobacteria, which first appeared about 800 one thousand thousand years agone, as the ascendant phytoplankton in the oceans.[27] In the Triassic, secondary endosymbiotic algae became the nearly important plankton.[28]

Brute [edit]

Center Triassic marginal marine sequence, southwestern Utah

Marine invertebrates [edit]

In marine environments, new modernistic types of corals appeared in the Early Triassic, forming small patches of reefs of pocket-sized extent compared to the great reef systems of Devonian or modern times. Serpulids appeared in the Middle Triassic.[29] Microconchids were abundant. The shelled cephalopods chosen ammonites recovered, diversifying from a single line that survived the Permian extinction.

Fish [edit]

The fish fauna was remarkably compatible, with many families and genera exhibiting a global distribution in the wake of the mass extinction upshot.[30] Ray-finned fishes (actinopterygians) went through a remarkable diversification during the Triassic, leading to height diversity during the Eye Triassic; however, the pattern of this diversification is still non well understood due to a taphonomic megabias.[31] Big predatory actinopterygians such equally saurichthyids and birgeriids appeared in the Early Triassic and became were widespread and successful during the period as a whole.[32] Lakes and rivers were populated by lungfish (Dipnoi), such equally Ceratodus, which are mainly known from the dental plates, abundant in the fossils record.[33]

Amphibians [edit]

Temnospondyl amphibians were amidst those groups that survived the Permian–Triassic extinction. Once abundant in both terrestrial and aquatic environments, the terrestrial species had more often than not died out during the extinction event. The Triassic survivors were aquatic or semi-aquatic, and were represented past Tupilakosaurus, Thabanchuia, Branchiosauridae and Micropholis, all of which died out in Early Triassic, and the successful Stereospondyli, with survivors into the Cretaceous Period. The largest Triassic stereospondyls, such as Mastodonsaurus, were upward to thirteen feet in length.[34] [35] Some lineages (e.m. trematosaurs) flourished briefly in the Early on Triassic, while others (eastward.g. capitosaurs) remained successful throughout the whole menstruation, or only came to prominence in the Late Triassic (east.g. Plagiosaurus, metoposaurs).

The outset Lissamphibians (modern amphibians) announced in the Triassic, with the progenitors of the first frogs already present by the Early Triassic. Yet, the group as a whole did not get mutual until the Jurassic, when the temnospondyls had become very rare.

Near of the Reptiliomorpha, stem-amniotes that gave rise to the amniotes, disappeared in the Triassic, but two water-domicile groups survived: Embolomeri that only survived into the early office of the period, and the Chroniosuchia, which survived until the end of the Triassic.

Reptiles [edit]

Archosauromorphs [edit]

The Permian–Triassic extinction devastated terrestrial life. Biodiversity rebounded every bit the surviving species repopulated empty terrain, just these were short-lived. Various communities with complex nutrient-web structures took thirty million years to reestablish.[10] [36] Archosauromorph reptiles, which had already appeared and diversified to an extent in the Permian Period, exploding in diversity every bit an adaptive radiation in response to the Permian-Triassic mass extinction. By the Early on Triassic, several major archosauromorph groups had appeared. Long-necked, lizard-like early archosauromorphs were known as protorosaurs, which is likely a paraphyletic group rather than a truthful clade. Tanystropheids were a family of protorosaurs which elevated their cervix size to extremes, with the largest genus Tanystropheus having a neck longer than its body. The protorosaur family Sharovipterygidae used their elongated hindlimbs for gliding. Other archosauromorphs, such as rhynchosaurs and allokotosaurs, were mostly stocky-bodied herbivores with specialized jaw structures.

Rhynchosaurs, barrel-gutted herbivores, thrived for only a short menstruation of time, condign extinct about 220 million years ago. They were exceptionally abundant in the middle of the Triassic, every bit the primary large herbivores in many Carnian-age ecosystems. They sheared plants with premaxillary beaks and plates along the upper jaw with multiple rows of teeth. Allokotosaurs were iguana-like reptiles, including Trilophosaurus (a common Late Triassic reptile with three-crowned teeth), Teraterpeton (which had a long beak-like snout), and Shringasaurus (a horned plant eater which reached a torso length of 3–4 metres (ix.eight–13.1 ft).

One group of archosauromorphs, the archosauriforms, were distinguished by their active predatory lifestyle, with serrated teeth and upright limb postures. Archosauriforms were diverse in the Triassic, including diverse terrestrial and semiaquatic predators of all shapes and sizes. The large-headed and robust erythrosuchids were amongst the dominant carnivores in the early on Triassic. Phytosaurs were a especially mutual group which prospered during the Late Triassic. These long-snouted and semiaquatic predators resemble living crocodiles and probably had a similar lifestyle, hunting for fish and minor reptiles around the water'southward edge. However, this resemblance is but superficial and is a prime-case of convergent evolution.

True archosaurs appeared in the early on Triassic, splitting into ii branches: Avemetatarsalia (the ancestors to birds) and Pseudosuchia (the ancestors to crocodilians). Avemetatarsalians were a pocket-sized component of their ecosystems, just eventually produced the earliest pterosaurs and dinosaurs in the Late Triassic. Early long-tailed pterosaurs appeared in the Norian and quickly spread worldwide. Triassic dinosaurs evolved in the Carnian and include early sauropodomorphs and theropods. Most Triassic dinosaurs were small predators and simply a few were common, such as Coelophysis, which was i–2 meters long.

Pseudosuchians were far more ecologically dominant in the Triassic, including large herbivores (such every bit aetosaurs), large carnivores ("rauisuchians"), and the outset crodocylomorphs ("sphenosuchians"). Aetosaurs were heavily-armored reptiles that were common during the last 30 1000000 years of the Tardily Triassic until they died out at the Triassic-Jurassic extinction. Most aetosaurs were herbivorous and fed on depression-growing plants, but some may accept eaten meat. "rauisuchians" (formally known as paracrocodylomorphs) were the keystone predators of most Triassic terrestrial ecosystems. Over 25 species take been constitute, including giant quadrupedal hunters, sleek bipedal omnivores, and lumbering beasts with deep sails on their backs. They probably occupied the large-predator niche later on filled past theropods. "Rauisuchians" were ancestral to small-scale, lightly-congenital crocodylomorphs, the merely pseudosuchians which survived into the Jurassic.

  • Proterosuchus, a crocodile-similar early on archosauriform from the Early Triassic

  • Coelophysis was 1 of the virtually abundant theropod dinosaurs in the Late Triassic

Marine reptiles [edit]

At that place were many types of marine reptiles. These included the Sauropterygia, which featured pachypleurosaurus and nothosaurs (both mutual during the Middle Triassic, especially in the Tethys region), placodonts, the earliest known herbivorous marine reptile Atopodentatus, and the first plesiosaurs. The first of the lizardlike Thalattosauria (askeptosaurs) and the highly successful ichthyosaurs, which appeared in Early Triassic seas soon diversified, and some eventually adult to huge size during the Late Triassic.

Other reptiles [edit]

Among other reptiles, the earliest turtles, like Proganochelys and Proterochersis, appeared during the Norian Age (Stage) of the Late Triassic Menstruum. The Lepidosauromorpha, specifically the Sphenodontia, are offset constitute in the fossil record of the before Carnian Age, though the primeval lepidosauromorphs likely occurred in the Permian. The Procolophonidae, the last surviving pararepiles, were an of import group of small lizard-like herbivores. The drepanosaurs were a clade of unusual, chameleon-like arboreal reptiles with birdlike heads and specialised claws.

Synapsids [edit]

Three therapsid groups survived into the Triassic: dicynodonts, therocephalians, and cynodonts. The cynodont Cynognathus was a characteristic top predator in the Olenekian and Anisian of Gondwana. Both kannemeyeriiform dicynodonts and gomphodont cynodonts remained important herbivores during much of the period. Therocephalians included both large predators (Moschorhinus) and herbivorous forms (bauriids) until their extinction midway through the menses. Ecteniniid cynodonts played a office every bit large-sized, cursorial predators in the Belatedly Triassic. During the Carnian (early part of the Late Triassic), some avant-garde cynodonts gave rise to the first mammals.

During the Triassic, archosaurs displaced therapsids equally the largest and most ecologically prolific terrestrial amniotes. This "Triassic Takeover" may have contributed to the evolution of mammals by forcing the surviving therapsids and their mammaliaform successors to live equally small-scale, mainly nocturnal insectivores. Nocturnal life may accept forced the mammaliaforms to develop fur and a higher metabolic rate.[38]

  • Lystrosaurus was a widespread dicynodont and the near common country vertebrate during the Early Triassic, after animal life had been greatly macerated

Coal [edit]

Immediately above the Permian–Triassic boundary the glossopteris flora was suddenly[39] largely displaced past an Australia-wide coniferous flora.

No known coal deposits date from the start of the Triassic Period. This is known as the "coal gap" and can exist seen as office of the Permian–Triassic extinction event.[40] Possible explanations for the coal gap include precipitous drops in sea level at the time of the Permo-Triassic boundary;[41] acid pelting from the Siberian Traps eruptions or from an touch event that overwhelmed acidic swamps; climate shift to a greenhouse climate that was too hot and dry for peat accumulation; evolution of fungi or herbivores that were more destructive of wetlands; the extinction of all plants adapted to peat swamps, with a hiatus of several meg years earlier new plant species evolved that were adapted to peat swamps;[twoscore] or soil anoxia as oxygen levels plummeted.[42]

Lagerstätten [edit]

The Monte San Giorgio lagerstätte, now in the Lake Lugano region of northern Italia and Switzerland, was in Triassic times a lagoon behind reefs with an anoxic lesser layer, and so at that place were no scavengers and little turbulence to disturb fossilization, a situation that can exist compared to the better-known Jurassic Solnhofen Limestone lagerstätte.

The remains of fish and various marine reptiles (including the mutual pachypleurosaur Neusticosaurus, and the bizarre long-necked archosauromorph Tanystropheus), along with some terrestrial forms similar Ticinosuchus and Macrocnemus, take been recovered from this locality. All these fossils appointment from the Anisian/Ladinian transition (about 237 million years ago).

Triassic–Jurassic extinction effect [edit]

The mass extinction effect is marked by 'End Tr'

The Triassic Period ended with a mass extinction, which was particularly severe in the oceans; the conodonts disappeared, equally did all the marine reptiles except ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs. Invertebrates similar brachiopods and molluscs (such every bit gastropods) were severely affected. In the oceans, 22% of marine families and possibly about half of marine genera went missing.

Though the end-Triassic extinction effect was non equally devastating in all terrestrial ecosystems, several of import clades of crurotarsans (large archosaurian reptiles previously grouped together equally the thecodonts) disappeared, every bit did almost of the big labyrinthodont amphibians, groups of small reptiles, and well-nigh synapsids. Some of the early, primitive dinosaurs also became extinct, but more than adaptive ones survived to evolve into the Jurassic. Surviving plants that went on to dominate the Mesozoic world included modernistic conifers and cycadeoids.

The cause of the Late Triassic extinction is uncertain. It was accompanied by huge volcanic eruptions that occurred equally the supercontinent Pangaea began to break autonomously about 202 to 191 million years agone (40Ar/39Ar dates),[43] forming the Cardinal Atlantic Magmatic Province (Military camp),[44] ane of the largest known inland volcanic events since the planet had first cooled and stabilized. Other possible just less likely causes for the extinction events include global cooling or even a bolide impact, for which an impact crater containing Manicouagan Reservoir in Quebec, Canada, has been singled out. All the same, the Manicouagan impact melt has been dated to 214±one Mya. The date of the Triassic-Jurassic boundary has also been more than accurately stock-still recently, at 201.3 Mya. Both dates are gaining accuracy by using more accurate forms of radiometric dating, in particular the decay of uranium to atomic number 82 in zircons formed at fourth dimension of the impact. And then, the evidence suggests the Manicouagan impact preceded the end of the Triassic past approximately 10±2 Ma. It could non therefore be the firsthand cause of the observed mass extinction.[45]

Skull of a Triassic Menstruum phytosaur found in the Petrified Woods National Park

The number of Late Triassic extinctions is disputed. Some studies suggest that there are at least two periods of extinction towards the cease of the Triassic, separated by 12 to 17 meg years. Merely arguing against this is a contempo study of North American faunas. In the Petrified Wood of northeast Arizona at that place is a unique sequence of late Carnian-early on Norian terrestrial sediments. An analysis in 2002 institute no meaning alter in the paleoenvironment.[46] Phytosaurs, the most common fossils there, experienced a change-over only at the genus level, and the number of species remained the same. Some aetosaurs, the adjacent well-nigh common tetrapods, and early on dinosaurs, passed through unchanged. However, both phytosaurs and aetosaurs were among the groups of archosaur reptiles completely wiped out by the cease-Triassic extinction event.

It seems likely then that there was some sort of end-Carnian extinction, when several herbivorous archosauromorph groups died out, while the large herbivorous therapsids—the kannemeyeriid dicynodonts and the traversodont cynodonts—were much reduced in the northern half of Pangaea (Laurasia).

These extinctions within the Triassic and at its end allowed the dinosaurs to expand into many niches that had become unoccupied. Dinosaurs became increasingly dominant, arable and various, and remained that way for the next 150 million years. The truthful "Age of Dinosaurs" is during the following Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, rather than the Triassic.

See also [edit]

  • Geologic time scale
  • List of fossil sites (with link directory)
  • Phylloceratina
  • Dinosaurs

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ Widmann, Philipp; Bucher, Hugo; Leu, Marc; et al. (2020). "Dynamics of the Largest Carbon Isotope Excursion During the Early on Triassic Biotic Recovery". Frontiers in Earth Science. eight (196): i–16. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00196.
  2. ^ McElwain, J. C.; Punyasena, S. W. (2007). "Mass extinction events and the plant fossil record". Trends in Ecology & Development. 22 (10): 548–557. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.003. PMID 17919771.
  3. ^ Retallack, K. J.; Veevers, J.; Morante, R. (1996). "Global coal gap between Permian–Triassic extinctions and middle Triassic recovery of peat forming plants". GSA Bulletin. 108 (2): 195–207. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0195:GCGBPT>ii.3.CO;two. Retrieved 2007-09-29 .
  4. ^ Payne, J. L.; Lehrmann, D. J.; Wei, J.; Orchard, M. J.; Schrag, D. P.; Knoll, A. H. (2004). "Large Perturbations of the Carbon Cycle During Recovery from the End-Permian Extinction". Science. 305 (5683): 506–9. doi:x.1126/science.1097023. PMID 15273391.
  5. ^ Ogg, James G.; Ogg, Gabi M.; Gradstein, Felix M. (2016). "Triassic". A Curtailed Geologic Time Scale: 2016. Elsevier. pp. 133–149. ISBN978-0-444-63771-0.
  6. ^ Hongfu, Yin; Kexin, Zhang; Jinnan, Tong; Zunyi, Yang; Shunbao, Wu (June 2001). "The Global Stratotype Department and Bespeak (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary" (PDF). Episodes. 24 (2): 102–14. doi:x.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i2/004 . Retrieved 8 December 2020.
  7. ^ Hillebrandt, A.v.; Krystyn, L.; Kürschner, W. M.; et al. (September 2013). "The Global Stratotype Sections and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Jurassic System at Kuhjoch (Karwendel Mountains, Northern Calcareous Alps, Tyrol, Austria)". Episodes. 36 (3): 162–98. CiteSeerX10.one.ane.736.9905. doi:ten.18814/epiiugs/2013/v36i3/001. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  8. ^ "Triassic". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
  9. ^ Ogg, James Thou.; Ogg, Gabi Chiliad.; Gradstein, Felix Grand. (2016). "Triassic". A Concise Geologic Time Scale: 2016. Elsevier. pp. 133–49. ISBN978-0-444-63771-0.
  10. ^ a b Sahney, S. & Benton, One thousand.J. (2008). "Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time". Proceedings of the Royal Gild B: Biological Sciences. 275 (1636): 759–65. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370. PMC2596898. PMID 18198148.
  11. ^ Brusatte, S. 50.; Benton, G. J.; Ruta, M.; Lloyd, G. T. (2008-09-12). "Superiority, Competition, and Opportunism in the Evolutionary Radiations of Dinosaurs" (PDF). Science. 321 (5895): 1485–88. Bibcode:2008Sci...321.1485B. doi:10.1126/scientific discipline.1161833. hdl:twenty.500.11820/00556baf-6575-44d9-af39-bdd0b072ad2b. PMID 18787166. S2CID 13393888. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-06-24. Retrieved 2012-01-14 .
  12. ^ "'Lethally Hot' Earth Was Devoid of Life – Could It Happen Again?". nationalgeographic.com. nineteen Oct 2012.
  13. ^ Friedrich von Alberti, Beitrag zu einer Monographie des bunten Sandsteins, Muschelkalks und Keupers, und die Verbindung dieser Gebilde zu einer Formation [Contribution to a monograph on the colored sandstone, crush limestone and mudstone, and the joining of these structures into i formation] (Stuttgart and Tübingen, (Federal republic of germany): J. G. Cotta, 1834). Alberti coined the term "Trias" on page 324 :
    "… bunter Sandstein, Muschelkalk und Keuper das Resultat einer Periode, ihre Versteinerungen, um mich der Worte E. de Beaumont's zu bedeinen, dice Thermometer einer geologischen Epoche seyen, … too dice bis jezt beobachtete Trennung dieser Gebilde in 3 Formationen nicht angemessen, und es mehr dem Begriffe Germination entsprechend sey, sie zu einer Formation, welche ich vorläufig Trias nennen will, zu verbinden."
    ( … colored sandstone, shell limestone, and mudstone are the upshot of a period; their fossils are, to avail myself of the words of E. de Beaumont, the thermometer of a geologic epoch; … thus the separation of these structures into iii formations, which has been maintained until now, isn't appropriate, and it is more than consistent with the concept of "formation" to join them into one formation, which for now I will name "trias".)
  14. ^ a b Cocks, L. Robin M.; Torsvik, Trond H., eds. (2016), "Triassic", Earth History and Palaeogeography, Cambridge: Cambridge Academy Printing, pp. 195–207, doi:10.1017/9781316225523.012, ISBN978-ane-316-22552-3 , retrieved 2022-05-16
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References [edit]

  • Emiliani, Cesare. (1992). Planet Earth: Cosmology, Geology, & the Evolution of Life & the Environment. Cambridge University Press. (Paperback Edition ISBN 0-521-40949-7)
  • Ogg, Jim; June, 2004, Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's) Stratigraphy.org, Accessed April thirty, 2006
  • Stanley, Steven Thousand. Globe Arrangement History. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1999. ISBN 0-7167-2882-6
  • Sues, Hans-Dieter & Fraser, Nicholas C. Triassic Life on Country: The Great Transition New York: Columbia Academy Printing, 2010. Series: Critical Moments and Perspectives in World History and Paleobiology. ISBN 978-0-231-13522-ane
  • van Andel, Tjeerd, (1985) 1994, New Views on an Sometime Planet: A History of Global Modify, Cambridge University Press

External links [edit]

  • Overall introduction
  • 'The Triassic world'
  • Douglas Henderson's illustrations of Triassic animals [ permanent dead link ]
  • Paleofiles page on the Triassic extinctions
  • Examples of Triassic Fossils
  • Triassic (chronostratigraphy calibration)

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triassic

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